The Anti-Federalists Objections to the Constitution Essay

The Anti-Federalists Objections to the Constitution - Essay Example The Anti-federalists believed that the power of the government should be concentrated in the legislature since it was the most democratic branch. They maintained that such a government offered the United States citizens the best protection for their essential rights. The Anti-federalist argued that the only way to ensure there existed democracy was through the allocation of power through particular texts. Therefore, they feared that the constitution that was being endorsed by the federalists delegated excess powers to the central government instead of these powers going to the states. They also pointed out that there was allocation of more authority to the judiciary and executive at the expense of the congress. It was explicitly clear in their minds that the federalists and their supporters were threatening the freedoms that Americans had defended against the Britain. Brutus incorporated these ideas into his attack against the proposed constitution. He suggests that a large republic would not succeed in a large country like the United States since it comprises of citizens who are diverse in many ways. According to him, such diversity would interfere with the operations and smooth running of the central government since many opinions and ideas would clash. Brutus believes that a republic can work in a small society like a state (Storing 37). Brutus also argued that the liberties of the US citizens were in danger since the federal government was being given a lot of powers that can be misused for personal gains. He gave examples of Britain and Rome where power had been misused and advised Americans not to follow the same trend. The freedom of the commonwealth was denied and their constitution overturned by their strong army which had been given powers. Julius Cesar who was appointed to lead the command capitalized on the loopholes in the constitution and changed it from a free republic into despotism. He also pointed out that the fear from a large standing army w as that the rulers may use them to promote their personal ambitions. They could also overturn the governments’ constitutional powers and gain their own powers to enable them dictate the US people. Brutus and other Anti-federalists advocates looked at themselves as the defenders of a self government that was going to offer outstanding leadership to the people of America. They supported leadership in small republics or the states with the rulers accessing limited powers that can not be misused. By giving examples of Rome and Britain where power had been misused, Brutus wanted the Federalists to learn from other countries and make adequate changes to the constitution. James Madison opposed the objections from the Anti-federalists by arguing that the government had to be designed to stop the politicians and the people from using it for their own selfish gains. He had contributed immensely to the constitution and this is why he countered the objections from the Anti-federalists st rongly. Among the many common features in the constitution was the idea of a balanced government system where the national authority was limited and reserving definite powers to the people through the local government. Madison also made other key contributions to the constitution such as the creation of a national legislature and the national chief executive. His strongest argument in support for the constitution was that, it had come up with a strong government capable of controlling the

The Mailbox And Postal System Information Technology Essay

The Mailbox And Postal System Information Technology Essay The hardware and software benefited in this project are the physical mailbox itself, a microcontroller, infrared sensors, and MySQL database management system. This chapter will give brief introduction of the mailbox and postal system, fundamental of microcontroller and sensor, and database management system (DBMS). 2.2 Mailbox and Postal System 2.2.1 Introduction of Mailbox Mailboxes are tools for sending letters (Postbox Solutions, 2007). They are very common in human communities. It provides people with one of the most practical way of communicating with other people around the world. There are so many varieties of mailbox regardless of shapes, colours, fonts, logo and etc. However, no matter how different or how strange the mailbox may look like, it still does its job with no compromises. 2.2.2 Relationship of Mailbox and Postal System in History Research by Cornerstone (2010) said that mailboxes is started to be used in the late 1700s in Paris, France. As time passed by, it became popular in the Europe in middle-late 1800s after the British Post Office asked people to install mailboxes at their offices and residents and decided to begin mail delivery. Previously, people have to pick their mails at the local post office by themselves and there were no postmen during that time. The story is different in the U.S in 1863 when the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) began the Free City Delivery. People in the U.S at that time had no mailboxes installed at their houses. Postmen delivered mail to each houses door by door waiting  for a patron  to answer the knock. This method of mail delivery took extra time and patrons were not always home or able to answer the door.  Patrons began to install mail slots and mailboxes at their doors. According to Cornerstone (2010), the U.S. Postal Service in 1896 introduced Rural Free Delivery (RFD). The USPS researched ways to save time and solve the problem with mail-carriers delivering mail to the scattered rural patrons.  They proposed that mailboxes for people lives in the area to be placed at curb sides and roadways. Later in 1923, USPS mandated that every household to have a  proper mailbox to receive mails. In 1915, Roy J. Joroleman, an employee of the post office invented the curved, tunnel-shaped mailbox.   The shaped was designed to prevent water and snow from collecting in the mailbox.  Soon after, the Postmaster General released the design for manufacture and production and this design has been the top-selling type of mailbox (Cornerstone, 2010). Figure 2.1 : A curved, tunnel-shaped mailbox 2.2.3 Centralize Mailbox System The development of the country has seen that there are so many tall, multiple-storey building been built all over the country. Single type mailbox that can always be spotted at each household and offices during the early days is no more practical for residential apartments and office complexes. In order to overcome this problem, centralize mailbox system was introduced. Centralized mailbox system often found at the ground floor of each tall building where every owner of each residential apartment or office will have one for his or her unit. central mailbox.PNG Figure 2.2 : Centralize mailbox system. 2.3 Microcontroller 2.3.1 Introduction to Microcontroller In simple words, a microcontroller is a computer (Brain, 2000). The terms computer can be wide in definition. It can be a desktop personal computer, a laptop computer, a handheld-sized smartphones or the microcontrollers themselves. A microcontroller can be interpreted as a computer due to the reason that it has several similarities as compared to a computer. Generally, the basic architecture of a microcontroller involves four main parts; central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), and input output ports (I/O ports). In the case of computers, all computers have a CPU that executes programmes such as a web browser or a word processor. The computer has some RAM installed where the CPU can store variables while doing its work. It also has I/O ports that connect many types of input and output devices, for example the keyboard the input device, and the monitor the output device. inside a microcontroller.PNG Figure 2.3 : The architecture of a microcontroller (Engineers Garage). However, with certain comparison in terms of features, microcontrollers and computers can be differentiated. The desktop computer which often can be found at offices and homes is a general purpose computer, while a microcontroller is a special purpose computer (Brain, 2000). Due to its relatively small size, microcontrollers are embedded inside some other devices and work as the controller of the features of the product. Microcontrollers are also dedicated to run one specific programme only; the programmed that is loaded into the ROM. Finally, often in most of the cases, a microcontroller is small and low in cost, hence good for mass production of products that utilize microcontrollers. 2.4 Sensor 2.4.1 Introduction to Sensor A sensor is a device that measures the physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or an instrument. Ideal sensors are designed to be linear. The output signal of such a sensor is linearly proportional to the value of the measured property. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between output signal and measured property. A good sensor obeys the following rules: Is sensitive to the measured property. Is insensitive to any other property. Does not influence the measured property. 2.4.2 Applications of Sensor Sensors are widely used in our daily life nowadays. There are many types of sensors today. These sensors can be categorized into specific types. Lists of sensors use nowadays are as below: Acoustic sensor such as Geophone, Microphone and Seismometer. Electric current sensor such as Ammeter, Voltmeter and Multimeter. Environment and weather sensor such as Gas detector and Rain sensor. Optical, light and imaging sensor such as flame detector, Infra-red sensor and Photodiode. Pressure sensor such as Barometer, Hydrometer and Pressure sensor. Temperature sensor such as Thermometer. 2.5 Database 2.5.1 Introduction to Database The database is one of the technology terms that most people have become accustomed to hearing either at work or while surfing the internet. The database term used to be an extremely technical term. However, database has become a household term with the rise of computer systems and information technology throughout the culture. Selena (1998) has highlighted the definition of database as a computerized way of keeping collection of records or data. The true usefulness of database is seen especially if the data stored in the database in big volumes because the stored data is easily accessible. Moreover, adding new information and updating any changes should also be considerably painless. Besides that, on-demand record searching in the future will be piece of cake. Another advantage of a database is it can be shared all over the network where the computer that holds the database is connected. At this point, the presence of a Database Management System (DBMS) is very important in order to have a highly systematic database system. DBMS is a program that handles the queries and data stored inside the database. 2.5.2 Types of Databases There are four types of databases that are commonly used where each type of database represents its own data model. Data model means how the data inside the database is structured. The four types are; Flat Model, Hierarchical Model, Relational Model, and Network Model. 2.5.2.1 The Flat Model Database As written by Smith (2010), a flat database is a database that utilizes only one table for the fields of records. For example, a spreadsheet is used to store all the data and records. The information is separated into columns of its category, and each line represents one record. This type of database might be sufficient for small database, but a spreadsheet will seem to be not practical, notably for ones with large amount of records. 2.5.2.2 The Hierarchical Model Database As its name hints, the hierarchical model database resembles a hierarchically-arranged data (Selena, Introduction to Databases for the Web: Pt. 1, 1998). It links records together in a structure like a tree, or like an organizational chart. In this model, each data will be categorized and stored as a sub-data of its category. Every data must fall into only one category. Hierarchical structure database were widely implemented during the early time of database management systems. However, this model of database became irrelevant for some certain data types. For example, in a college environment, the administration might stored student information and sorts them according to their courses. Database operation will be smooth if every student is enrolled in one course only. But, problem will arise whenever a student enrolled in more than one course. Hierarchical database is unable to put a record into two categories, or otherwise, it will be considered as duplications. Figure 2.4 shows an example of the structure of hierarchical database. hierarcy engineering.png Figure 2.4 : The tree structure of hierarchical database model. 2.5.2.3 The Relational Model Database The relational model is the most popular type of database the most database system in use today. As appointed by K. Powell (2010), the relational database concept was derived from the principal of relational algebra, which was realized by Dr. E. F. Codd in his paper, A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks. This database model is a very powerful tool, not only to store records, but to access it as well. All the data were stored in tables. Each table contains of rows and columns. A single record will be recorded in one row, and the details of the data are separated in columns, in the table. Every column has a unique name and the content within the column must be of the same type. A table is able to hold many records, and sometimes tables are referred as relation. A database may have more than one table. Each of the tables can be linked or related to each other by referring to the primary key. A primary key is a unique name that every record must have that acts as its identifier. 2.5.2.4 The Network Model Database A network database model is not far different from the hierarchical model. The difference between network and hierarchical model is, in network model, a record may fall into more than one category. Figure 2.5 shows the structure of network database model which is a bit different from relational database models. hierarcy engineering2.png Figure 2.5 : The structure of network database model. 2.6 MySQL 2.6.1 Introduction to MySQL MySQL is a probably the most popular database management system. Referring to the MySQL 5.0 Reference Manual (2010), to perform an operation onto a database such as adding, accessing, and processing data stored in a computer database, ones will need a database management system such as MySQL. A DBMS plays a central role in computers at handling large amounts of data. 200px-MySQL.svg.png Figure 2.6 : The MySQL logo. MySQL is a relational database management system or so called as RDBMS. For the sake of speed and flexibility, a relational database stores data in separate tables compared to flat file database that puts all the data in one big file. The SQL abbreviation in MySQL word stands for Structured Query Language (MySQL 5.0 Reference Manual, 2010). Badurina (2010) stated that MySQL is open source and it falls under GNU Not Unix (GNU) General Public License (GPL). Open source means that anyone is possible to use and modify the software.

Annotation Assignment: A Separate Peace :: essays research papers

Setting: 1. Chapter 1, page 1, #2: â€Å"I didn’t entirely like this glossy new surface† Analysis: This quote shows that the setting was at one point different to the author. It was not glossy and new. 2. Chapter 1, page 4, #2: â€Å"Devon is sometimes considered the most beautiful school in New England, and even on this dismal afternoon its power was asserted.† Analysis: This quote showing setting can be closely related to the character Finny. Much like the school, Finny is beautiful even in the midst of some of his hateful classmates. 3. Chapter 1, page 5, #3: â€Å"Moving through the soaked, coarse grass I began to examine each one closely, and finally identified the tree I was looking for by means of certain small scars rising along its trunk, and by a limb extending over the river, and another thinner limb growing near it. Analysis: This setting shows in detail a location which is directly tied to the author. He remembers the tree in such detail because this was the place were the main conflict in his life took place. Theme: 1. Chapter 3, page 5, #3: â€Å"A little fog hung over the river so that as I neared it I felt myself becoming isolated from everything except the river and the few trees beside it. The wind was blowing more steadily here, and I was beginning to feel cold.† Analysis: This quote has the affect of creating a foreboding mood as if something dreadful is about to happen to gene and the landscape is warning him. 2. Chapter 2, page 18, #3: â€Å"It was hypnotism. I was beginning to see that Phineas could get away with anything.† Analysis: This quote is based on the theme of envy. It is clear that Gene feels that Phineas can get away with anything. The reader can tell that Gene hate him because of this. 3. Chapter 3, page 29, #1: â€Å"â€Å"Blitzkrieg†, repeated Finny doubtfully. â€Å"We could figure out some kind of blitzkrieg baseball,† I said. â€Å"We’ll call it blitzkrieg ball,† said Bobby. â€Å"Or just blitzball†Ã¢â‚¬  Analysis: This quote shows the theme of microcosm. The boys are so isolated from the rest of the world and the war, that they do not understand fully the horrors of war. So much so that they name a game after a German tank invasion were thousands of people died. 4. Chapter 5, page 53, #1: â€Å"I couldn’t figure out exactly what this word meant, whether It meant broken in one or several places, cleanly or badly, and I didn’t ask. Annotation Assignment: A Separate Peace :: essays research papers Setting: 1. Chapter 1, page 1, #2: â€Å"I didn’t entirely like this glossy new surface† Analysis: This quote shows that the setting was at one point different to the author. It was not glossy and new. 2. Chapter 1, page 4, #2: â€Å"Devon is sometimes considered the most beautiful school in New England, and even on this dismal afternoon its power was asserted.† Analysis: This quote showing setting can be closely related to the character Finny. Much like the school, Finny is beautiful even in the midst of some of his hateful classmates. 3. Chapter 1, page 5, #3: â€Å"Moving through the soaked, coarse grass I began to examine each one closely, and finally identified the tree I was looking for by means of certain small scars rising along its trunk, and by a limb extending over the river, and another thinner limb growing near it. Analysis: This setting shows in detail a location which is directly tied to the author. He remembers the tree in such detail because this was the place were the main conflict in his life took place. Theme: 1. Chapter 3, page 5, #3: â€Å"A little fog hung over the river so that as I neared it I felt myself becoming isolated from everything except the river and the few trees beside it. The wind was blowing more steadily here, and I was beginning to feel cold.† Analysis: This quote has the affect of creating a foreboding mood as if something dreadful is about to happen to gene and the landscape is warning him. 2. Chapter 2, page 18, #3: â€Å"It was hypnotism. I was beginning to see that Phineas could get away with anything.† Analysis: This quote is based on the theme of envy. It is clear that Gene feels that Phineas can get away with anything. The reader can tell that Gene hate him because of this. 3. Chapter 3, page 29, #1: â€Å"â€Å"Blitzkrieg†, repeated Finny doubtfully. â€Å"We could figure out some kind of blitzkrieg baseball,† I said. â€Å"We’ll call it blitzkrieg ball,† said Bobby. â€Å"Or just blitzball†Ã¢â‚¬  Analysis: This quote shows the theme of microcosm. The boys are so isolated from the rest of the world and the war, that they do not understand fully the horrors of war. So much so that they name a game after a German tank invasion were thousands of people died. 4. Chapter 5, page 53, #1: â€Å"I couldn’t figure out exactly what this word meant, whether It meant broken in one or several places, cleanly or badly, and I didn’t ask.

Religion and Ethnic Diversity Essay

Religion and Ethnic Diversity Buddhism was first found in India about 2,500 years ago. Buddhism is an increasing popular religion that continues to be the leading religion in the Far East. Buddhism has advanced over to a large amount of countries that have embraced a vast variety of customs, rituals, beliefs, and practices. Buddhist’s do not believe that a God created Earth. Buddha is the only Master, Buddhist’s believe in. Buddhist’s acknowledge that the ultimate purpose of life is to establish consideration for all living beings without inequity and to perform for their piece, good, and happiness. Buddhist’s have incorporated the Four Noble Truths in their lives, which are Dukkha, SamudÄ ya, Nirodha, and Magga. According to â€Å"The Four Noble Truths† (2013), † 1.The truth of suffering (Dukkha). 2. The truth of the origin of suffering (SamudÄ ya). 3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha). 4.The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga),â₠¬  (The Four Noble Truths). Buddhism does not share common characteristics with other religion groups. Buddhism is, however, receptive to other religions and beliefs. This religious group acknowledges the way other religions teach those involved. These individuals do not believe in a God. It is a belief system like all other religious groups. There are individuals who do not accept Buddhist and believe that those who do are not going to heaven. Others who refuse to understand Buddhism and how it works dismiss it completely because it is not what they believe in. Even though Buddhism is not America’s most practiced religion, its beliefs and ideas have been passed into American culture. It has helped blend American culture. Today there is a large amount of Buddhist’s who contribute to promoting peace amongst one another, reaching out to those who are in prison and who are homeless, and some even do advocacy for the environment. Buddhist’s experience hate just like other people in other religions. In 2003, Chung Tai Buddhist Group applied to construct a meditation and worship center in the city of Walnut, California, but the application was later denied. Not only did the City Planning Commission deny the application, but also residents were against building the center. Residents disputed against the plan because they believed there would be an increase in traffic and noise. A few years later the City Planning Commission approved an application to build on some of the area Chung Tai had prepared to use. In 2010, the Department of Justice filed a lawsuit stating the city of Walnut; California treated the group unreasonably while dealing with the permit to build the worship and meditation center for Chung Tai Buddhist Group. The Department of Justice came to the conclusion that it was religious discrimination. After learning what Buddhism is and where it originated from allows me to understand it more. I now know that it is not only about humming and repeating a few words in another language, but also learning how to live a happier, more pure life even with the struggles and unfortunate events that can occur. Not only that, but respecting every living thing as it is. The Chinese are quite different from other racial/ethnic groups. The two most common languages used in China are Mandarin or Cantonese. Mandarin is t he government, education, and media’s main language that is used in China. Known as the ‘common language,’ mandarin is the first language that is spoken. The Chinese are a combined society with the urge to associate themselves in groups, whether it is to their work group, family, country, or associates. The Chinese depend on non-verbal communication like tone of voice and facial expression, to reveal what other maybe thinking or feeling. The Chinese believe in an ethical system known as Confucianism. Confucianism is a set up of ethics and behaviors that signify responsibilities of people towards one another based on their relationship. The Chinese have and continue to contribute to American culture in many ways. Many Americans embrace Chinese religions. Converting to Buddhism and so many other Asian religions. In the 1800’s Chinese immigrants helped working with the gold miners. These men helped construct the intercontinental railway. The Chinese have brought their recipes to American cultures that have been passed down from generation to generation. The Chinese brought their customs, language, and social organization into Amer ican culture. On May 6, 1882 the Chinese Exclusion Act was signed into law. It was brought about in reply to economic concerns in the West Coast, where Americans imputed unemployment and withheld wages to Chinese workers. Americans at the time viewed the Chinese as racially indifferent. Even though the act was repealed during World War II it only allowed 105 Chinese immigrants per year into the United States,  which still showed prejudice against the Chinese. I believe the source of prejudice against the Chinese was economic benefit. A large amount of Chinese immigrants came to the states to seek employment opportunities, but were denied at times because of the direct need for employment. I do believe what I have learned about the Chinese helped me understand this group. I learned what a big contribution to our culture they provided. I also learned that because of their great impact on American culture some individuals take those same customs and values and incorporate them into their own lives. The Chinese and Buddhist experienced similar situations dealing with discrimination because they were both persecuted for being who they are as individuals. Neither one of these groups tried to be something they were not, so they were prejudged and treated unfairly. These groups experienced different situations dealing with discrimination because the Chinese were discriminated against based on real and observed racial dissimilarities. Buddhistâ₠¬â„¢s were discriminated against based on who or what they believed in. Buddhist’s were also discriminated against because of their feeling towards their religion and those belonging to other religious groups. Discrimination towards these two groups and the many others is wrong. It has restricted these groups from opportunities that should have always been available to not only one group, but also all groups of individuals regardless of their appearance or their beliefs. 1. The Four Noble Truths. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/beliefs/fournobletruths_1.shtml 2.

What Are in Your View the Main Principles Governing International Trade Policy

Course: International Political Economy [GT27M/ GOVT 2049] ID Number: 620033630 Name: Matthew Thomas Lecturer: Sheldon Barnes Date of Submission: 7/9/2012 Question I: What are in your view the main principles governing international trade policy in the context of the WTO and which would be the main provisions in which you find these principles reflected in the WTO agreements? Please elaborateFormed in 1995 to replace its predecessor the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade  (GATT), under the Treaty of Marrakech, The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only international organization that deals and treats with the global rules of trade between nations. Its main function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible. The goal of the WTO is to aid and facilitate producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.At its core are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by a majority of the world’s trading nations and approved within their respective parliaments. These principles aid in the efficient government of international trade policy ensuring that all signatories adhere to the contract they are bind to, by this governments are now required to create national trade policies transparent by notifying the WTO about present laws in actions and measures implemented, and through regular reports by the secretariat on countries’ trade policies.The WTO agreements cover goods, services and intellectual property. They explain the principles of liberalisation, as well as the allowed exceptions. They include individual countries’ commitments to lower customs tariffs and other trade barriers, and to open and maintain open services markets. The agreements set procedures for settling disputes; prescribe special treatment for developing countries.The agreements of the WTO are detailed and intricate as they are legal texts that facilitate a wide range of activities such as: agriculture, cl othing and textiles, banking and finance, telecommunications, government purchases, industrial standards and product safety, food sanitation regulations, intellectual property, among others. A number of simple, fundamental principles run throughout all of these documents. These principles exist as the foundation of the international multilateral trading system.Given that the core of the WTO, especially leading out of the Doha Round of Trade Negotiations [2001- present], is to focus and adjust the concerns that are faced by developing nations; the main principles within the context of the WTO that validate international trade policy are: i) Trade without discrimination ii) Freer Trade iii) Promotion of fair competition v) Development and economic reform. These principles of international trade within the legislation of the WTO can be reflected in trade agreements drafted by the organisation.The principle of â€Å"Trade without discrimination† has two key underlying principles: Most Favoured Nation [MFN] and National Treatment [NT]. The MFN, in essence is simply treating other people equally. As legislated by WTO agreements, countries are prohibited from discrimination between their trading partners. Wherein one country is restricted from granting a particular country a special favour e. g. such as a lower customs duty rate for one of their products and this favour is not extended to all the other members of the WTO. This principle is known as Most Favoured Nation (MFN) treatment.The first article of the  General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) [1947], which is the governing legislation for the trade in goods, this article speaks to prohibition of member nations to discriminate between â€Å"like† products originating from other member nations. In Article I of the GATT it states â€Å"any advantage, favour, privilege or immunity granted by any contracting party to any product originating in or destined for any other country shall be accord ed immediately and unconditionally to the like product originating in or destined for the territories of all other contracting parties. MFN is also a focus in  Article II of General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), where it states â€Å"each Member shall accord immediately and unconditionally to services and service suppliers of any other Member treatment no less favourable than that it accords to like services and service suppliers of any other country. † Likewise Article IV on the  Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)   which states â€Å"With regard to the protection of intellectual property, any advantage, favour, privilege or mmunity granted by a Member to the nationals of any other country shall be accorded immediately and unconditionally to the nationals of all other Members. † The agreements in essence cover all three main areas of trade handled by the WTO and gives guidelines as how to WTO member nations execut e their trade policies. Though the essence of the MFN treatment is to permit some sense of equality among WTO signatories exceptions are permitted. For example, countries can set up a free trade agreement that applies only to goods traded within the group —    discriminating against goods from outside.Or they can give developing countries special access to their markets. Or a country can raise barriers against products that are considered to be traded unfairly from specific countries. And in services, countries are allowed, in limited circumstances, to discriminate. Though these exceptions exist, they are permitted under highly strict conditions. In essence, the MFN policy acts a facilitator to ensure that every time a country lowers a trade barrier or opens up a market, it has to do so for the same goods or services from all its trading partners – regardless of their economic development.National Treatment eliminates discrimination between the products of national a nd foreign services or nationals, in this sense the protocol for national products are expected to be reciprocated to that of foreign entities. Once foreign goods enter a local market, the expectation exists that they should be treated equally as the locally-produced goods. This expectation extends pass produce; it should apply to foreign and domestic services, and also foreign and local trademarks, copyrights and patents.Given that NT covers various areas of trade it is highlighted in three main WTO agreements. In Article III of the GATT it is stated that â€Å"The products of the territory of any contracting party imported into the territory of any other contracting party shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to like products of national origin in respect of all laws, regulations and requirements affecting their internal sale, offering for sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or use. Article XVII of  GATS  states that â€Å"†¦each Mem ber shall accord to services and service suppliers of any other Member, in respect of all measures affecting the supply of services, treatment no less favourable than that it accords to its own like services and service suppliers. † Article III of  TRIPS, speaks to the issue of Intellectual Property [IP] by stating that â€Å"Each Member shall ccord to the nationals of other Members treatment no less favourable than that it accords to its own nationals with regard to the protection  (3)  of intellectual property†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The three treaties highlights the areas of trade the WTO governs, from that of goods exchange, services exchange and the importance of ensuring the proper utilisation of Intellectual Property rights such as copyrighting and patenting. According to the WTO â€Å"National treatment only applies once a product, service or item of intellectual property has entered the market.Therefore, charging customs duty on an import is not a violation of national treatment even if locally-produced products are not charged an equivalent tax. † In conclusion, the â€Å"Trade without Discrimination† principle with its two underlying principles of Most Favoured Nation [MFN] and National Treatment [NT] policies The National Treatment principle constitute the two pillars of the non-discrimination principle that is widely seen as the foundation of the GATT/WTO multilateral trading regime. The concept of â€Å"Freer Trade† assists in the decrease of trade barriers which acts as an excellent facilitator for encouraging trade.Such barriers include: customs duties (or tariffs) and measures such as import bans or quotas that restrict quantities selectively; it can also span to include the decrease of other administrative barriers such as red tape- including policies of exchange rate. The WTO’s global system lowers trade barriers by means of negotiation and applies the principle of non-discrimination [MFN and NT]. This brings a bout a result of a reduction in the costs of production, as imports used in production are far cheaper; a reduction in the prices of finished goods and services, which in essence can contribute to a lower cost of living.Since the GATT’s creation in 1947, there have been  eight rounds of trade negotiations. The ninth round, under the Doha Development Agenda, is still in negotiations for the past eleven years. The initial focus was geared towards lowering tariffs on imported goods; however the 1980s, the negotiations had expanded to cover non-tariff barriers on goods, with the inclusion of areas such as services and intellectual property. As a result of the negotiations, the tariffs on industrial goods declined to less than 4%, during the mid-1990s. Opening markets can be beneficial, but it also requires adjustment.The WTO agreements allow countries to introduce changes gradually, through â€Å"progressive liberalization†. Article XIX of the GATS states â€Å"†¦w ith a view to achieving a progressively higher level of liberalization. Such negotiations shall be directed to the reduction or elimination of the adverse effects on trade in services of measures as a means of providing effective market access. This process shall take place with a view to promoting the interests of all participants on a mutually advantageous basis and to securing an overall balance of rights and obligations.The process of liberalization shall take place with due respect for national policy objectives and the level of development of individual Members, both overall and in individual sectors. There shall be appropriate flexibility for individual developing country Members for opening fewer sectors, liberalizing fewer types of transactions, progressively extending market access in line with their development situation and, when making access to their markets available to foreign service suppliers, attaching to such access conditions aimed at achieving the objectives re ferred to in Article  IV. The article clearly addresses developing countries which are usually given longer to fulfil their obligations. The principle of â€Å"Promoting fair competition†Ã‚  portrays The WTO as an instrument of not just extending mechanisms of free trade but is also a system of rules dedicated to open, fair and undistorted competition. By this, the system of the WTO permits tariffs and, in limited circumstances, other forms of protection. More accurately, it is based on the rules on non-discrimination [MFN and NT] which are designed to secure fair conditions of trade.So too are those on dumping (exporting at below cost to gain market share) and subsidies. The issues are complex, and the rules try to establish what is fair or unfair, and how governments can respond, in particular by charging additional import duties calculated to compensate for damage caused by unfair trade. By removing some market barriers The WTO has promoted competition in the global trad ing market extending it beyond the borders of WTO membership; the trading principles set by the WTO are meant to allow fair and undisturbed market competition.The WTO extends and clarifies previous GATT rules that laid down the basis on which governments could impose compensating duties on two forms of â€Å"unfair† competition: dumping and subsidies. WTO agreements are geared towards the support and maintenance of fair competition in the sectors of: agriculture, intellectual property, services. The WTO Agreement on agriculture is designed to provide increased fairness n farm trade, the agreement on intellectual property will improve conditions of competition where ideas and inventions are involved, and another will do the same thing for trade in services. The construct of the WTO contributes to development and as it encourages development and economic reform geared towards to the developmental process of developing nations. Given that notion, developing countries require an urgent sense of flexibility to effectively implement the agreements drafted by the organisation.The current agreements inherit the earlier provisions of GATT that allow for special assistance and trade concessions for developing countries. The WTO cannot claim to make all countries equal however it aids in the reduction of some inequalities; by doing this it gives smaller countries more voice, and at the same time freeing the major powers from the complexity of having to negotiate trade agreements with each of their numerous trading partners.A majority of over three quarters of the WTO membership comprise of developing countries and countries in transition to market economies. The 1986-1994 Uruguay Round saw over 60 of these countries implementing trade liberalisation programmes unconventionally. At the same time, developing countries and transition economies were much more active and influential in the Uruguay Round negotiations than in any previous round, this activeness has also transpired to the current Doha Development Agenda.Developing countries were prepared to take on most of the obligations that are required of developed countries by the end of the Uruguay Round. The agreements did grant developing nations transition periods to adjust themselves to the more stringent and arduous provisions of the WTO. The GATT has a special section on Trade and Development which speaks to provisions on the concept of non-reciprocity in trade negotiations between developed and developing countries. Both GATT and the GATS allow developing countries some measure of preferential treatment.A  ministerial decision   adopted at the end of the Uruguay Round says more developed countries should accelerate the implementation of market access commitments on goods exported by the least-developed countries, while increasing technical assistance for them. More recently, developed countries have started to allow duty-free and quota-free imports for almost all products from least -developed countries. The current Doha Development Agenda includes developing countries’ concerns about the difficulties they face in implementing the Uruguay Round agreements. ——————————————– 1 ]. The Marrakech Agreement developed out of the  General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which it includes; but it supplemented it with several other agreements, on such issues as  trade in services,  sanitary and phytosanitary (plant health) measures,  trade-related aspects of intellectual property  and  technical barriers  to trade. It also established a new, more efficient and legally binding means of dispute resolution. [ 2 ]. The Secretariat has a particular responsibility to provide technical support to developing countries, and especially the least-developed countries. 3 ]. As a result of the  Uruguay Round  negotiations the treaty was created to extend the multilateral trading system to  service sector. [ 4 ]. (NAFTA)North American Free Trade Agreement is an example of one of the most successful trade agreements in history; it has contributed to significant increases in agricultural trade and investment between the United States, Canada and Mexico and has benefited farmers, ranchers and consumers throughout North America. The Mexican-Canadian agreement eliminated most tariffs either immediately or over 5, 10, or 15 years. 5 ]. Page 248 the proliferation of rules and regulations prescribing the conduct of decision making in bureaucratic affairs (Politics Economic Welfare) [ 6 ]. The removal or reduction of restrictions or barriers on the free exchange of goods between nations. This includes the removal or reduction of both tariff (duties and surcharges) and non-tariff obstacles (like licensing rules, quotas and other requirements). The easing or eradication of these restrictions is often referred to as promoting â€Å"free trade. à ¢â‚¬  [ 7 ].GATT (Article VI) allows countries to take action against dumping. The Anti-Dumping Agreement clarifies and expands Article VI, and the two operate together. They allow countries to act in a way that would normally break the GATT principles of  binding  a tariff and  not discriminating  between trading partners — typically anti-dumping action means charging extra import duty on the particular product from the particular exporting country in order to bring its price closer to the â€Å"normal value† or to remove the injury to domestic industry in the importing country. 8 ]. The WTO Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures disciplines the use of subsidies, and it regulates the actions countries can take to counter the effects of subsidies. Under the agreement, a country can use the WTO’s dispute-settlement procedure to seek the withdrawal of the subsidy or the removal of its adverse effects. Or the country can launch its own investig ation and ultimately charge extra duty (â€Å"countervailing duty†) on subsidized imports that are found to be hurting domestic producers. 9 ]. This is a procedure when developed countries grant trade concessions to developing countries they should not expect the developing countries to make matching offers in return. [ 10 ]. The URUGUAY ROUND AGREEMENT: â€Å"Decision on Measures Concerning the Possible Negative Effects of the Reform Programme on Least-Developed and Net Food-Importing Developing Countries†